Rene Descartes was a central figure in the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. In his Discourse on Method he outlined the contrast between mathematics and experimental sciences, and the extent to which each one can achieve certainty. Drawing on his own work in geometry, optics, astronomy and physiology, Descartes developed the hypothetical method that characterizes modern science, and this soon came to replace the traditional techniques derived from Aristotle. Many of Descartes' most radical ideas - such as the disparity between our perceptions and the realities that cause them - have been highly influential in the development of modern philosophy.

One of the foundation-stones of modern philosophy, Rene Descartes' Meditations and Other Metaphysical Writings is translated from the Latin with an introduction by Desmond M. Clarke in Penguin Classics. Descartes was prepared to go to any lengths in his search for certainty - even to deny those things that seemed most self-evident. In his Meditations of 1641, and in the Objections and Replies that were included with the original publication, he set out to dismantle and then reconstruct the idea of the individual self and its existence. In doing so, Descartes developed a language of subjectivity that has lasted to this day, and he also took his first steps towards the view that would eventually be expressed in the epigram Cogito, ergo sum ('I think, therefore I am'), one of modern philosophy's most famous - and most fiercely contested - claims. The first part of a two-volume edition of Descartes' works in Penguin Classics, the second of which is Discourse on Method & Related Writings, this edition includes extensive selections from the Objections and Replies, Part One of The Principles of Philosophy, Comments on a Certain Manifesto and related correspondence from 1643 to 1649. Rene Descartes (1596-1650), generally regarded as the founder of modern philosophy, was born in La Haye (now called Descartes) near Tours, and educated at the Jesuit College of La Fleche. Like many of his contemporaries he contested the value of an education based on Aristotelianism and, after leaving college, attempted to resolve the sceptical crisis of his age by devising a method of reasoning modelled on the rigour and certainty of mathematics.

Rene Descartes (1569-1650), the 'father' of modern philosophy, is without doubt one of the greatest thinkers in history: his genius lies at the core of our contemporary intellectual identity. Breaking with the conventions of his own time and suffering persecution by the Church as a consequence, Descartes in his writings - most of which are philosophical classics - attempted to answer the central questions surrounding the self, God, free-will and knowledge, using the science of thought as opposed to received wisdom based on the tenets of faith. This edition, the most comprehensive one-volume selection of Descartes' works available in English, includes his great essay, Discourse on Method.

This is the second of a new two-volume edition of the works of Descartes in Penguin Classics. This volume is designed for students who approach Descartes from the point of view of his philosophy of science. Includes DISCOURSE ON METHOD, the most accessible and well-known of his discussions of scientific method; the first seven chapters of the earlier, unpublished work, THE WORLD; as well as a selection of Descartes' correspondence and his replies to his critics.

'I have always been of the opinion that the two questions respecting God and the Soul, were the chief of those that ought to be determined by help of Philosophy rather than of Theology.' Meditations on First Philosophy is one of the best-known works by Descartes and among the most influential philosophical texts ever written. This treatise offers metaphysical views on the relationship between the mind and thought, the nature of reality, and how accumulated knowledge and our experiences affect us. This edition also includes the great philosopher's Discourse on the Method, a brilliant discussion of reasoning and experimentation which helped establish the foundations of the scientific process, as well as a selection of enlightening essays from his Principles of Philosophy.

Widely regarded as the father of modern Western philosophy, Descartes sought to look beyond established ideas and create a thought system based on reason. In this profound work he meditates on doubt, the human soul, God, truth and the nature of existence itself. Great Ideas. Throughout history, some books have changed the world. They have transformed the way we see ourselves - and each other. They have inspired debate, dissent, war and revolution. They have enlightened, outraged, provoked and comforted. They have enriched lives - and destroyed them. Now Penguin brings you the works of the great thinkers, pioneers, radicals and visionaries whose ideas shook civilization and helped make us who we are.

The Words In My Hand is the re-imagined true story of Helena Jans, a Dutch maid in 17th-century Amsterdam, who works for Mr Sergeant the English bookseller. When a mysterious and reclusive lodger arrives - the Monsieur - Mr Sergeant insists everything must be just so. It transpires that the Monsieur is Rene Descartes. But this is Helena's story: the woman in front of Descartes, a young woman who yearns for knowledge, who wants to write so badly she makes ink from beetroot and writes in secret on her skin - only to be held back by her position in society. Weaving together the story of Descartes' quest for reason with Helena's struggle for literacy, their worlds overlap as their feelings deepen; yet remain sharply divided. For all Descartes' learning, it is Helena he seeks out as she reveals the surprise in the everyday world that surrounds him. When reputation is everything and with so much to lose, some truths must remain hidden. Helena and Descartes face a terrible tragedy and ultimately have to decide if their love is possible at all.

In its vast scope, this book presents the continuum of Western philosophy. Ranging from ancient Greece to nineteenth-century America, it traces the history of our civilization through the seminal works of its most influential thinkers. Each philosopher in this volume made intellectual history; each created a revolution in ideas; each reaffirmed mans view of himself as a sentient being capable of creating order out of the baffling contradictions of existence. And the most powerful reflections and speculations of each are represented here. Plato- Apology, Crito and the Death of Socrates, from PhadoAristotle- PoeticsSt. Ansem- The ontological Proof of St. Ansem, from ProslogiumSt. Thomas Aquinas- St. Thomas Proofs of Gods Existence, from the SummaTheologicaRene Descartes- Meditations on the First PhilosophyDavid Hume- An Inquiry Concerning Human UnderstandingImmanuel Kant- Prolegomena to Any Future MetaphysicsJohn Stuart Mill- UtilitarianismWilliam James- The Will to Believe

In its vast scope, this book presents the continuum of Western philosophy. Ranging from ancient Greece to nineteenth-century America, it traces the history of our civilization through the seminal works of its most influential thinkers. Each philosopher in this volume made intellectual history; each created a revolution in ideas; each reaffirmed mans view of himself as a sentient being capable of creating order out of the baffling contradictions of existence. And the most powerful reflections and speculations of each are represented here. Plato- Apology, Crito and the Death of Socrates, from PhadoAristotle- PoeticsSt. Ansem- The ontological Proof of St. Ansem, from ProslogiumSt. Thomas Aquinas- St. Thomas Proofs of Gods Existence, from the SummaTheologicaRene Descartes- Meditations on the First PhilosophyDavid Hume- An Inquiry Concerning Human UnderstandingImmanuel Kant- Prolegomena to Any Future MetaphysicsJohn Stuart Mill- UtilitarianismWilliam James- The Will to Believe

A collection of poetic reflections on life and death. Ranging from musings on youth and age, and elegies on bereavement and grief to meditations on the nature of mortality, these are poems that explore our precious time on this earth and perhaps even offer some comfort for those seeking consolation.

The manual is destined for students studying the course "Finite Element Method" on the problems of nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete structures. It is directed on the formation of the student’s integrity view on nonlinear behavior of such structures and singularities of their design. Manual considers the bases of developed by the author Additional Finite Element Method (AFEM) which is a variant the of Finite Element Method (FEM) destined for nonlinear design of reinforced concrete structures at limit states. AFEM adds to the traditional sequence of solving problem by FEM the units of well-known methods of the structural design: limit state method (method of ultimate equilibrium) and method of elastic decisions (method of additional loads). It is reached by introduction of ideal failure models and additional design diagrams formed of additional finite elements, where each AFE describes the limit state reached by the main element. The main relations defining the properties of AFEs as well as the examples of the use of AFEM for the analysis of reinforced concrete structures at limit states are given too.

The manual is destined for students studying the course "Finite Element Method" on the problems of nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete structures. It is directed on the formation of the student’s integrity view on nonlinear behavior of such structures and singularities of their design. Manual considers the bases of developed by the author Additional Finite Element Method (AFEM) which is a variant the of Finite Element Method (FEM) destined for nonlinear design of reinforced concrete structures at limit states. AFEM adds to the traditional sequence of solving problem by FEM the units of well-known methods of the structural design: limit state method (method of ultimate equilibrium) and method of elastic decisions (method of additional loads). It is reached by introduction of ideal failure models and additional design diagrams formed of additional finite elements, where each AFE describes the limit state reached by the main element. The main relations defining the properties of AFEs as well as the examples of the use of AFEM for the analysis of reinforced concrete structures at limit states are given too.

Originally written only for his personal consumption, Marcus Aurelius's Meditations has become a key text in the understanding of Roman Stoic philosophy. This Penguin Classics edition is translated with notes by Martin Hammond and an introduction by Diskin Clay. Written in Greek by an intellectual Roman emperor without any intention of publication, the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius offer a wide range of fascinating spiritual reflections and exercises developed as the leader struggled to understand himself and make sense of the universe. Spanning from doubt and despair to conviction and exaltation, they cover such diverse topics as the question of virtue, human rationality, the nature of the gods and Aurelius's own emotions. But while the Meditations were composed to provide personal consolation, in developing his beliefs Marcus also created one of the greatest of all works of philosophy: a series of wise and practical aphorisms that have been consulted and admired by statesmen, thinkers and ordinary readers for almost two thousand years. Martin Hammond's new translation fully expresses the intimacy and eloquence of the original work, with detailed notes elucidating the text. This edition also includes an introduction by Diskin Clay, exploring the nature and development of the Meditations, a chronology, further reading and full indexes. Marcus Aelius Aurelius Antoninus (121-80) was adopted by the emperor Antoninus Pius and succeeded him in 161, (as joint emperor with adoptive brother Lucius Verus). He ruled alone from 169, and spent much of his reign in putting down various rebellions, and was a persecutor of Christians. His fame rest, above all, on his Meditations, a series of reflections, strongly influenced by Epictetus, which represent a Stoic outlook on life. He was succeeded by his natural son, thus ending the period of the adoptive emperors. If you enjoyed Meditations, you might like Seneca's Letters from a Stoic, also available in Penguin Classics.

Beyond the Sentence describes the features and functions of different types of texts and shows how to incorporate them into language teaching. It examines what makes spoken and written text coherent and shows how an understanding of this can help students deal with the language needs of work, study and exams. It also provides practical activities that can be used in the classroom to help students work with texts. - Provides a straightforward introduction to discourse and text analysis. - Suggests ways to evaluate and use learners'texts in more constructive ways. - Contains a wide range of practical ideas and photocopiable tasks that are ready to use in the classroom. Scott Thornbury teaches on the on-line MA TESOL program at the New School, New York. He has also taught and trained in Spain (where he lives), Egypt, the UK and in his native New Zealand. He has written a number of prize-winning books on grammar and methodology. His present interests include discourse and corpus analysis, classroom interaction, second language emergence and critical pedagogy.

In A Discourse on Inequality Rousseau sets out to demonstrate how the growth of civilization corrupts man’s natural happiness and freedom by creating artificial inequalities of wealth, power and social privilege. Contending that primitive man was equal to his fellows, Rousseau believed that as societies become more sophisticated, the strongest and most intelligent members of the community gain an unnatural advantage over their weaker brethren, and that constitutions set up to rectify these imbalances through peace and justice in fact do nothing but perpetuate them. Rousseau’s political and social arguments in the Discourse were a hugely influential denunciation of the social conditions of his time and one of the most revolutionary documents of the eighteenth-century.

In five elegant autobiographical meditations Calvino delves into his past, remembering awkward childhood walks with his father, a lifelong obsession with the cinema and fighting in the Italian Resistance against the Fascists. He also muses on the language and sensations of emptying the kitchen rubbish and the shape he would, if asked, consider the world. Calvino's reflections on the nature of memory itself are engaging, witty, and lit through with his usual alchemical brilliance.